Irrigation
Seyed Abolghasem Haghayeghi Moghaddam; Fariborz Abbasi; Abolfazl Nasseri; Peyman Varjavand; Sayed Ebrahim Dehghanian; Mohammad Mehdi Ghasemi; Saloome Sepehri; Hassan Khosravi; Mohammad Karimi; Farzin Parchami-Araghi; Mustafa Goodarzi; Mokhtar Miranzadeh; Masoud Farzamnia; Afshin Uossef Gomrokchi; Moinedin Rezvani; Ramin Nikanfar; Seyed Hassan Mousavi fazl; Ali Ghadami Firouzabadi
Abstract
Introduction
The basic strategy to mitigate water crisis is to save agricultural water consumption by increasing productivity, which will result in more income for farmers and sustainable production. Due to the economic importance of barley production in the country, it is necessary to study the volume ...
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Introduction
The basic strategy to mitigate water crisis is to save agricultural water consumption by increasing productivity, which will result in more income for farmers and sustainable production. Due to the economic importance of barley production in the country, it is necessary to study the volume of irrigation water and water productivity to produce this strategic product. Based on extensive field research on irrigation water management and application of different irrigation methods in barley farms, the innovations of this research were: a) measuring water consumed and determining water use efficiency in barley production, b) the up-to-date of the measurements and research findings, c) findings applicability for application in agricultural planning at the national and regional levels, d) the ability to development the findings in barley farms at the national level to improve water use efficiency. The hypotheses of this research are: a) barley irrigation water is various in different regions, b) water applied in barley farms is more than the required one, c) the water use efficiency of barley is different in the main production areas, and d) The applied water of barley is not the same in different irrigation methods. Therefore, the main objective of this study is to determine the water consumed and water use efficiency in barley production; to measure the water applied to barley farms in the main production areas; to compare the water measured in the production areas with the net irrigation requirement; and finally to determine water use efficiency of the barley in the main production areas in the Iran.
Materials and Methods
For this purpose, the volume of irrigation water and barley yield in 296 selected farms in 12 provinces (about 75% of the area under cultivation and production of barley in Iran) including Khuzestan, East Azerbaijan, Ardabil, North Khorasan, Fars, Khorasan Razavi, Tehran, Semnan, Markazi, Isfahan, Hamedan and Qazvin were measured directly. Farms in the mentioned provinces were selected to cover various factors such as irrigation method, level of ownership, proper distribution and quality of irrigation water. By carefully monitoring the irrigation program of selected farms during the growing season, the amount of irrigation water for barley during one year was measured. At the end of the season and after determining the average yield of barley during the 2020-2021 year, the values of irrigation water productivity and total water productivity (irrigation+effective rainfall) were determined in selected barley farms in each region. The volume of water supplied was compared with the gross irrigation requirements estimated by the Penman-Monteith method using meteorological data from the last ten years, and compared with the values of the National Water Document. Analysis of variance was used to investigate the possible differences in yield, irrigation water and water productivity in barley production.
Results and Discussion
To assess the reliability of statistical analysis, we evaluated the sufficiency of the number of measurements needed for both the quantity of irrigation water and the ley yield on the farms. Subsequently, we computed statistical indices, such as the mean and standard deviation. The results showed that the number of measurements of irrigation water and barley yield was to be 296 and 283, respectively, which was more than the number of measurements required for irrigation water (41 dataset) and yield (50 dataset). Therefore, the sufficiency of the data for the statistical analysis was reliable. The results showed that the difference in yield, volume of irrigation water and water productivity indices were significant in the mentioned provinces. The volume of barley irrigation water in the studied areas varied from 1900 to 9300 cubic meters per hectare and its average weight was 4875 cubic meters per hectare. The average barley yield in selected farms varied from 1630 to 7050 kg ha-1 and the average was 3985 kg ha-1. Irrigation water productivity in selected provinces ranged from 0.22 to 1.53 and its weight average was 0.90 kg m-3. Average gross irrigation water requirement in the study areas by the Penman-Monteith method using meteorological data of the last ten years and the national water document were 4710 and 4950 cubic meters per hectare, respectively. Irrigation efficiency of barley fields in the country is estimated at 62-65% without deficit irrigation.
Conclusion
In order to reduce water consumption and improve water productivity, it is suggested to manage water delivery to farms during the season and deliver water rights to them according to crops water requirements. To reduce water losses and enhance productivity in the barley farms, it is suggested the application of modern irrigation systems according to the farms conditions with the suitable operation; and modification and improvement of surface and traditional irrigation methods. Note that, water is only one of several necessary and effective inputs in the optimal and economic production of barley. On the other hand, attention should be paid to the optimal application of other inputs including: seeds, fertilizers, equipment and tools etc.
Irrigation
S. Habibi; M. Khoshravesh; R. Nouri Khajebelagh
Abstract
IntroductionIn today's world, challenges related to agriculture, food security, water and energy resources, productivity, and greenhouse gas emissions have emerged as significant issues for global societies. Through their international impacts, these challenges have led to economic, social, and environmental ...
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IntroductionIn today's world, challenges related to agriculture, food security, water and energy resources, productivity, and greenhouse gas emissions have emerged as significant issues for global societies. Through their international impacts, these challenges have led to economic, social, and environmental changes on a global scale. One of the most crucial issues that should be highlighted is the shortage of water resources. Water, as a vital factor in agriculture and food production, holds special importance. Therefore, in order to achieve sustainable agriculture, it is necessary to pay attention to the energy indicators, the efficiency of water consumption in the production of agricultural products and the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. In general, a combination of energy indicators, water efficiency and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in agriculture can help to develop sustainable agriculture and preserve the environment and help to provide safe and accessible food for the society. The aim of the present study was to investigate the indicators of physical water, energy efficiency, and greenhouse gas emissions on alfalfa and barley crops in two different climates: a warm and arid climate (Shahr-e-Qom Plain, Qom) and a temperate and humid climate (Sari Plain, Mazandaran). This was done to assess the impact of climate on the outcomes of these indicators. Materials and MethodsTo investigate the physical water efficiency and evaluate energy indicators in this study, major agricultural products in Sari and Sharifabad Plains, including barley and alfalfa, were analyzed using cross-sectional data from the agricultural year 2021-2022. Initially, the sample size was determined based on the Cochran formula and the Bartlett method (2001). Subsequently, sampling was carried out using a questionnaire designed by the researchers themselves. The questionnaires totaled 250 (Sari Plain: 150, Sharifabad Plain: 100), and the collected information included the amount of input consumption and production quantity. The questionnaire, designed by the researcher, was validated for validity and reliability by experts and specialists. The inputs used in the study of water efficiency and energy indicators for the mentioned products in Sari and Sharifabad Plains included person-days of human labor, machine working hours, fuel consumption of machines, the quantity of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium fertilizers per hectare, the quantity of various chemical pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides) per liter per hectare, the amount of water consumption in cubic meters per hectare, and the amount of seed consumption in kilograms per hectare.Results and DiscussionThe results of the descriptive statistics of input consumption in Sari and Sharifabad Plains in barley and alfalfa crops showed that the highest input consumption of manpower in the cultivation of alfalfa crops in Sharifabad Plains with an average of 225 hours per hectare, the highest amount of fertilizer consumption related to the alfalfa crop in Sharifabad Plain is related to nitrogen fertilizer with an average of 130 kg per hectare, the highest amount of fuel consumption of machinery related to alfalfa crop in Sari Plain with an average of 405 liters per hectare, the highest amount of water consumption related to alfalfa crop in Sharifabad Plains with an average of 17500 cubic meters per hectare and the highest yield of alfalfa was obtained in Sharifabad Plains with an average of 11550 kg per hectare. The obtained results indicated that the highest input energy level in Sharifabad Plain for alfalfa was 5,674.50 MJ per hectare. The results of energy efficiency indicated that alfalfa production in Shahrifabad Plain had the highest value with 0.19 kilograms per MJ, while this index for alfalfa in Sari Plain was 0.13 kilograms per MJ. Additionally, the energy efficiency for barley in Shahrifabad Plain was 0.13 kilograms per MJ, and for Sari Plain, it was 0.12 kilograms per MJ, showing a somewhat similar level. The physical water use efficiency results revealed that the highest and lowest efficiency levels were observed for barley in Sari Plain, amounting to 0.96 kilograms per cubic meter, and for alfalfa in Shahrifabad Plain, amounting to 0.57 kilograms per cubic meter, respectively. Furthermore, this index for alfalfa in Sari Plain was 0.67 kilograms per cubic meter, and for barley in Shahrifabad Plain, was 0.8 kilograms per cubic meter. The results for greenhouse gas emissions demonstrated that the level of emissions in Sari Plain was higher than Sharifabad Plain, attributed to excessive fertilizer and pesticide use in Sari Plain. The highest greenhouse gas emissions in Sari Plain for alfalfa were 2681.65 kilograms of CO2 per hectare, while in Sharifabad Plain, was 2351.85 kilograms of CO2 per hectare. ConclusionThe overall results indicated that crop performance in humid regions was not higher than in dry and semi-arid regions, and this index depends on various parameters, including water consumption and managerial considerations. However, water consumption in temperate and humid regions is significantly lower than in dry and semi-arid areas due to higher precipitation. This result is increased efficiency in temperate and humid regions.
Mohsen Soleimanzadeh; Hossein Khademi; mozhgan sepehri
Abstract
Introduction: Iron is one of the essential micronutrients for plant growth. The total amount of iron in soil is often more than plant iron requirement, but the low solubility of iron compounds in many of soils leads to low uptake of this element by plant and eventually, results in iron deficiency symptoms ...
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Introduction: Iron is one of the essential micronutrients for plant growth. The total amount of iron in soil is often more than plant iron requirement, but the low solubility of iron compounds in many of soils leads to low uptake of this element by plant and eventually, results in iron deficiency symptoms in plant. Iron is the structural component of cytochromes, leghemoglobines and ferredoxins. This element participates in many vital activities of plants, such as photosynthesis, respiration and fixation of molecular nitrogen. Some of micaceous minerals including muscovite and phlogopite which contain significant amounts of iron are plentiful in soils of arid and semiarid regions of Iran. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of two plant species (alfalfa and barley) to uptake structural iron from muscovite and phlogopite.
Materials and Methods: The greenhouse experiment was conducted as factorial arrangement based on completely randomized design with three replicates. Treatments consisted of two plant species (alfalfa and barley), two types of micaceous minerals (phlogopite and muscovite) and two nutrient solutions (complete and iron-free).The experiment was done in 700 g pots containing a mixture of quartz sand (as the filling material), cocopeat and micaceous minerals (phlogopite and muscovite). Quartz sand and micaceous mineral were obtained from a mine near Hamadan City in Iran. For this purpose, X-ray elemental analysis fluorescence (XRF) was used to investigate the possibility of using quartz sand and micaceous mineral. Micaceous minerals were passed through a 140 mesh sieve and then, samples were saturated with Ca using a 0.5 M CaCl2 solution. To remove the excess Cl, saturated minerals were washed with distilled water several times and then samples were oven dried at 105 °C. Pots were filled with a mixture of 600 g quartz sand, micaceous mineral and cocopeat. The amount of mineral was added until there was 0.35% K2O in all pots. Two barley and alfalfa seeds were planted in each pot. During the growth period (150days), plants were irrigated and fed with distilled water and nutrient solutions, respectively. At the end of the growth period, shoots and roots of plants were harvested andiron contents of plants extracts were measured by atomic absorption.
Results and Discussion: For two plant species, the results showed that iron concentration in the pots containing phlogopite and fed with iron-free nutrient solution was in a sufficient range for both barley and alfalfa. The amount of iron uptake by alfalfa in both substrates and nutrition solutions was more than barely. It seems that alfalfa is able to uptake more amount of iron due to the abundant root exudates. The highest amount of iron uptake by root is related to alfalfa cultivated in substrates containing phlogopite and fed with iron-free nutrient solution. The highest barley shoots weight is related to substrates containing phlogopite and muscovite fed with complete (with iron) nutrient solution, whereas in alfalfa, the highest shoot weight is related to phlogopite-containing substrates fed with iron-free nutrient solution. Plants cultivated in two substrates containing phlogopite and muscovite did not show deficiency symptoms until late growth period and appearance of plants fed with iron-free nutrient solution was completely similar to those fed with complete nutrient solution. The amount of iron uptake by roots is several times higher than that of shoots. High uptake of iron by plant roots are affected by phytosiderophores produced by plant roots. Phytosiderophores produce chelate Fe (III) in the rhizosphere. These chelates are absorbed into the apoplast of roots and Fe (III) is separated from them as a result of certain reactions, and takes the path to xylem.
Conclusion: The results of this study indicate that iron structural phlogopite and muscovite minerals can provide iron requirement for plant during the growth season. Since phlogopiteis a tri-octahedral mineral, it has more Fe (II) and its structure is weaker than muscovite, and hence, is able to provide more iron for the plant during growth season. But muscovite is di-octahedral and its structure contains Al+3, so octahedral may not easily release its elements into the rhizosphere for the plants utilization. The factors influence the release of elements from micaceous minerals are structure and type of mineral. Alfalfa is able to release more iron from micaceous minerals thanks to its root systems and ability to produce more shoot. Since micaceous minerals have considerable amount of iron and are able to provide iron requirement for plant during growth season, it is recommended to investigate whether micaceous minerals are able to supply this element for longer growth periods.
Ali Reza Tavakoli; H. Asadi
Abstract
Introduction: Two of the main challenges in developing countries are food production and trying to get a high income for good nutrition and reduction of poverty. Cereals and legumes are the most important crops in the rainfed areas of the country occupying the majority of dry land areas. Irrigated production ...
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Introduction: Two of the main challenges in developing countries are food production and trying to get a high income for good nutrition and reduction of poverty. Cereals and legumes are the most important crops in the rainfed areas of the country occupying the majority of dry land areas. Irrigated production systems had a main role in food production in the past years; but unfortunately, in recent years, with high population and competition of industry and environment with agricultural sectors, getting adequate irrigation water is difficult. The main purpose of this study is to determine the best option of crop agronomic management. Rainfed agriculture is important in the world; because this production system establishes %80 of the agriculture area and prepares %70 of the food in the world. In the Lorestan province, production area for rainfed barley is 120,000 ha and the amount produced is 120000 ton (approximately 1009 kg per ha). The purposes of this study were to evaluate cost, benefit and profit of rainfed barley production, economical and non-economical substitution of treatments in different agronomic management, study of sale return, cost ratio, determining break-even of price and comparing it with the guaranteed price of barley and estimating the value of water irrigation.
Materials and Methods: This research was carried out by sample farmers (12 farmers) on rainfed barley at the Honam selected site in the Lorestan province during 2005-07. At on-farm areas of the upper Karkheh River Basin (KRB) three irrigation levels were analyzed (rainfed, single irrigation at planting time and single irrigation at spring time) under two agronomic managements (advanced management (AM) and traditional management (TM). Data was analyzed by Partial Budgeting (PB) technique, Marginal Benefit-Cost Ratio (MBCR), and economical and non-economical test. For estimation of net benefit the following formula was used:
(1)
Where:
N.B: Net income (Rials/ ha) , B(w) : Gross income, C (w) : Cost of production,
YG: Crop yield (kg/ ha), PG : Price of crop(Rials/kg), YS: straw yield (kg/ ha PS : Price of straw (Rials/kg), C1: Total fixed cost without cost of water and irrigation (Rials/ ha), Pw: Price of water and irrigation (Rials/ m3) and W: Amount of water and irrigation (m3/ ha).
Changes of incomes and changes of costs for every treatment in different crop managements were used as follows:
(2)
(3)
Where j and j+1 show existence and substitution crop managements.
In order to determine the price of irrigation water, total cost including pump and electromotor, semi deep well, power instrument, maps, pipe transport and implementation network, other primary cost and operation cost were used. The analysis period for the instruments (pump and electromotor, maps, implementation network) was 20 years and for the semi deep well was 30 years. In this study, total cost was referred to the present value with %15 discount rate by uniform series formulas. Then, the water was used in the farm. The price of water was determined. Capital recovery formula is as follows:
(4)
Where:
A: Annual value of primary investment costs, P: Primary investment costs for irrigation system, i: Discount rate and n: analysis period.
Results and Discussion: According to the results, the price of water and irrigation at the research region based on its components and under 15% and 25% interest rates were obtained to be 213 and 338.1 Rials per cubic meters, respectively. The barley grain yield and its net benefit under advanced management were more than that obtained under traditional management.
In traditional management, the mean barley grain yield for treatments including rainfed, Single irrigation (SI) - planting and SI spring were estimated to be 1572, 2487 and 2670 kgha-1, respectively. The mean profit for rainfed barley production for treatments including rainfed, SI-planting and SI spring were estimated to be 1270.2, 2314.2 and 2607 (Thousand Rial.ha-1), respectively. In advanced management, the mean barley grain yield for treatments including rainfed, Single irrigation (SI) -planting and SI spring were estimated to be 2270, 3444 and 2853 kgha-1, respectively. The mean profit for rainfed barley production for treatments including rainfed, SI-planting and SI spring were estimated to be 1987, 3465.4 and 2519.8 (Thousand Rial.ha-1), respectively. In the research site, the mean net benefit of rainfed barley under sowing and spring single irrigation and AM, increased by about 173% and 98.4%, respectively.
Conclusion: The results showed that the substitution of AM-SI planting treatment instead of other treatments was non-economical. On the other hand, in this substitution, decreasing of profit is more than decreasing of cost. Finally, at Honam site, recommended management include: AM + planting SI, AM + spring SI, and rainfed AM, respectively.
R. Mosavi; E. Sepehr; A. Samadi; Mirhasan Rasouli-Sadaghiani; B. Sadeghzade
Abstract
Introduction: Phosphorus (P) is regarded as the most important soil nutrient after nitrogen (N) for plant growth and development as it plays key roles in plant metabolism, structure and energy transformation. Also, although soil P is often abundant in both organic and inorganic forms, it is frequently ...
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Introduction: Phosphorus (P) is regarded as the most important soil nutrient after nitrogen (N) for plant growth and development as it plays key roles in plant metabolism, structure and energy transformation. Also, although soil P is often abundant in both organic and inorganic forms, it is frequently a major or even the prime limiting factor for plant growth. Low phosphorus (P) availability is a major global global constraint to crop production. In most soils, soil and fertilizer P are easily bound by either soil organic matter or chemicals, and thus are unavailable to plants unless hydrolyzed to release inorganic phosphate. Phosphorus efficient plants play a major role in increasing crop yields due to shortage of inorganic P fertilizer resources, limited land and water resources, and increasing environmental concerns. Therefore, the development of P-efficient crop varieties that can grow and yield better with low P supply is a key for improving crop production. Enhancing P efficiency in plants can be achieved through enhancing P acquisition, utilization, or both.
Materials and Methods: In order to investigate the effect of microbial inoculation on phosphorus efficiency of different genotypes of barley, a glasshouse factorial experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design with 10 barley genotypes and different phosphorus (P) treatments including control (P0), phosphate rock (RP), RP inoculated with phosphate solubilizing fungi (RP+F), RP inoculated with phosphate solubilizing bacteria (RP+B), RP inoculated with both fungi and bacteria inoculums (RP+B+F), and soluble phosphate (PS) in three replications. After sieving (2 mm sieve), and, air - drying of soil samples, basal nutrients mixed thoroughly at the following soil test results. Then, soils placed in plastic pots (3 kg). The P treatments as (KH2PO4 and Rock Phosphate) 80 mg kg-1 soil added at the depth of 5-cm of soil. After 9 weeks the plants were harvested, grain dry weight (GDW) and grain P concentration measured and then content P (TP), P efficiency (PE), P acquisition efficiency (PACE) and P utilization efficiency (PUTE) were calculated.
Results and Discussion: The results indicated that microbial inoculation had significant effect (P
J. Givi
Abstract
In addition to qualitative and quantitative land suitability evaluation, economical evaluation can be carried out as well, based on net or gross benefit per surface area unit. The present research was done to evaluate land suitability, qualitatively and economically,, by different methods for irrigated ...
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In addition to qualitative and quantitative land suitability evaluation, economical evaluation can be carried out as well, based on net or gross benefit per surface area unit. The present research was done to evaluate land suitability, qualitatively and economically,, by different methods for irrigated maize, wheat, potato and barley in Shahrekord area. In this regards, qualitative land suitability class was determined by matching land characteristics with the studied crops growth requirements, using simple limitation method and ALES program. Economical land suitability evaluation was carried out, using "internal rate of return", "gross profit", "net present value" and "benefit/cost ratio" methods which are included in the ALES program. The results showed that qualitative suitability class in all of the studied land units for irrigated maize, wheat and barley is S2 and for irrigated potato in 73% of the units is S2 and in 27% of them is S3. As the "net present value" method is used, % 73 and % 27 of the land units are classified as S2 and S1, respectively for all of the studied crops. For wheat and maize, all of the land units are classified as S1, as gross profit, benefit/cost ratio and internal rate of return methods are used. For potato and barley, using gross profit and internal rate of return methods, % 73 and % 27 of the land units are classified as S2 and S1, respectively and as the benefit/cost ratio method is used, economical land suitability class in all of the land units is S1.
S. Rajaei; F. Raiesi; S.M. Seyedi
Abstract
The contamination of ecosystem components with petroleum and its derivatives is considered as one of the most crucial environmental threat in Iran, particularly in southern areas. Bioremediation has frequently been regarded as an appropriate and more practical alternative to clean-up petroleum hydrocarbons ...
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The contamination of ecosystem components with petroleum and its derivatives is considered as one of the most crucial environmental threat in Iran, particularly in southern areas. Bioremediation has frequently been regarded as an appropriate and more practical alternative to clean-up petroleum hydrocarbons in the contaminated environments. Bioremediation optimizes conditions for microbial hydrocarbon degradation and uses the microorganisms and plants potential to metabolize contaminants resulting in their removal or attenuation in situ. This study aims at remedying an aged petroleum-contaminated soil using bioaugmentation and phytoremediation techniques. A consortium has been prepared using oil-degrading bacteria; 10% oil-contaminated soil was then inoculated with the consortium. Additionally, oat and/or barley were planted in certain treatments to separately evaluate the effects of plant-bacteria interaction on Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon (TPH) degradation and inoculum's efficiency. TPH degradation value under unplanted and uninoculated conditions was only 2.4% in the studied petroleum -contaminated soil after 4 months. However, the presence of the two plants elevated TPH degradation up to 30%, and bacterial inoculation resulted in only 20% TPH degradation. The significance of the plants in enhancing TPH degradation could be probably explained by promoting microbial populations, growth and activities. The highest amount of TPH degradation recorded was 44% and was observed with inoculated plants. The presence of plants in petroleum-contaminated soils promoted microbial populations and activities with increased microbial respiration and biomass well developed petroleum-degrading microbial population and decreased microbial metabolic quotient (qCO2), hence, increased biodegrading of hydrocarbons.
