Effect of Biochar and Activated Carbon from Organic Waste on the Immobilization of Heavy Metals (Pb, Zn, Cd) and Corn Plant Growth in Contaminated Soil

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

• M. Malehmir Chegini
• AHMAD GOLCHIN

Departmentt. of Soil Science, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran

10.22067/jsw.2024.89325.1426

Abstract

Introduction
Soil contamination with heavy metals significantly threatens both environmental and human health. Anthropogenic activities, including chemical fertilizers and pesticides, industrial processes, wastewater disposal, and mining, contribute to the accumulation of heavy metals in soil. Plants can then taken up these contaminants and enter the food chain, causing various health problems. Soil amendments such as biochar and activated carbon offer a promising strategy for reducing the mobility and bioavailability of heavy metals in soil. This study investigated the effectiveness of biochar and activated carbon derived from organic waste materials (wheat straw, walnut shells, and almond shells) in immobilizing lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and cadmium (Cd) and promoting corn (Zea mays. L.) growth in a greenhouse setting using contaminated soil.
 
Materials and Methods
Three types of organic waste wheat straw, walnut shells and almond shells were pyrolyzed at two temperatures (300 °C and 500 °C) under oxygen-free conditions for two hours to produce six types of biochar. The resulting biochars were then activated with phosphoric acid at their respective production temperatures, yielding six types of activated carbon. These organic waste materials, biochar, and activated carbons were added to soil contaminated with lead, zinc and cadmium at four application rates (0, 2.5, 5, and 10% by weight) in triplicate, 4.5 Kg Pot^-1. The pots were incubated for one month under controlled temperature and humidity to achieve a relative equilibrium. Following incubation, the concentration of available heavy metals in the treated and control soils was measured. Corn was then planted in the pots, and at the end of the growth period, plant growth parameters (dry weight of shoots and roots) and heavy metal concentrations in plant tissues were determined. The data were analyzed using a completely randomized factorial design, and treatment means were compared to each other and the control.
 
Results and Discussion
Increasing pyrolysis temperature resulted in increased biochar pH, electrical conductivity (EC), and ash content, while the percentage of organic carbon, C/N ratio, and cation exchange capacity (CEC) decreased. Activation with phosphoric acid lowered the pH, ash content, EC, and organic carbon content of the biochars, while increasing their CEC. Amending the soil with biochar significantly increased soil pH and EC, whereas activated carbon amendments decreased these parameters. All amendments (organic waste, biochar, and activated carbon) significantly reduced the concentration of available heavy metals in the soil. Activated carbon had the greatest effect on immobilization, while organic waste had the least. The lowest concentrations of lead, cadmium, and zinc extractable with DTPA were observed with the 500°C activated carbon derived from wheat straw at a 10% application rate, with values of 1.6, 4.5, and 464 mg kg^-1 soil, respectively, representing reductions of 99.46%, 83.67%, and 63.96% compared to the control treatment. This treatment also resulted in the lowest heavy metal concentrations in both the aerial parts and roots of the corn plants. Specifically, the lowest concentrations of lead, zinc, and cadmium in the aerial parts were 71.67, 490.67, and 1.67 mg kg^-1 dry weight, respectively, while in the roots, they were 206, 1095, and 20 mg kg^-1 dry weight, respectively. The highest dry weights of the aerial parts and roots were also observed with this treatment and a 5% application rate, with values of 5.76 and 1.84 grams per pot, respectively. The lowest concentration of heavy metals in corn tissues was observed in treatments with activated carbon produced at 500 °C and applied at a rate of 10%.
 
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that activated carbon derived from organic waste materials can be an effective and sustainable method for remediating soil contaminated with heavy metals and promoting plant growth. However, the presence of detectable heavy metals in corn tissues following activated carbon application suggests that this approach may be best suited for soils with low to moderate contamination levels.
 

Keywords

• Absorption
• Availability
• Biochar
• Phosphoric acid
• Surface functional groups

Main Subjects

• Soil science

©2024 The author(s). This is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).

References

1. Aggarwal, P., Choudhary, K.K., Singh, A.K., & Chakraborty, D. (2006). Variation in soil strength and rooting characteristics of wheat in relation to soil management. Geoderma, 136(1-2), 353-363. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.04.004
2. Ahmad, M., Lee, S.S., Lee, S.E., Al-Wabel, M.I., Tsang, D.C., & Ok, Y.S. (2017). Biochar-induced changes in soil properties affected immobilization/mobilization of metals/metalloids in contaminated soils. Journal of Soils, 17, 717-730. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11368-015-1339-4
3. Ahmad, M., Rajapaksha, A.U., Lim, J.E., Zhang, M., Bolan, N., Mohan, D., Vithanage, M., Lee, S.S., & Ok, Y.S. (2014). Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: a review. Chemosphere, 99, 19-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.10.071
4. Ahmad, M., Usman, A.R., Al-Faraj, A.S., Ahmad, M., Sallam, A., & Al-Wabel, M.I. (2018). Phosphorus-loaded biochar changes soil heavy metals availability and uptake potential of maize (Zea mays) plants. Chemosphere, 194, 327-339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.11.156
5. Akhil, D., Lakshmi, D., Kartik, A., Vo, D.V.N., Arun, J., & Gopinath, K.P. (2021). Production, characterization, activation and environmental applications of engineered biochar: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 19, 2261-2297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10311-020-01167-7
6. Bandara, T., Franks, A., Xu, J., Bolan, N., Wang, H., & Tang, C. (2020). Chemical and biological immobilization mechanisms of potentially toxic elements in biochar-amended soils. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 50(9), 903-978.‏ https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2019.1642832
7. Biria, M., Moezzi, A., & AmeriKhah, H. (2017). Effect of Sugercan bagasse, s biochar on maize plant growth, grown in lead and cadmium contaminated soil, Water & Soil, 31(2), 609-626. (In Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22067/JSW.V31I2.55832
8. Boostani, H.R., Hardie, A.G., Najafi-Ghiri, M., & Zare, M. (2022). Chemical speciation and release kinetics of Ni in a Ni-contaminated calcareous soil as affected by organic waste biochars and soil moisture regime. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-022-01289-7
9. Bousdra, T., Papadimou, S.G., & Golia, E.E. (2023). The use of biochar in the remediation of Pb, Cd, and Cu-contaminated soils. The Impact of biochar feedstock and preparation conditions on its remediation capacity. Land, 12(2), 383. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020383
10. Bremner, J.M., & Mulvaney, C. (1982). Nitrogen—total. Methods of soil analysis: part 2 chemical and microbiological properties, 9, 595-624. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr9.2.2ed.c31
11. Brendova, K., Zemanová, V., Pavlíková, D., & Tlustoš, P. (2016). Utilization of biochar and activated carbon to reduce Cd, Pb and Zn phytoavailability and phytotoxicity for plants. Journal of Environmental Management, 181, 637-645. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020383
12. Cassel, D., & Nielsen, D. (1986). Field capacity and available water capacity. Methods of soil analysis: Part 1 Physical mineralogical methods, 5, 901-926. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.1.2ed.c36
13. Cha, J. S., Park, S.H., Jung, S.-C., Ryu, C., Jeon, J.-K., Shin, M.-C., & Park, Y.-K. (2016). Production and utilization of biochar: A review. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 40, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jiec.2016.06.002
14. Daffalla, S. (2023). Adsorption of chromium (VI) from aqueous solution using palm leaf-derived biochar: kinetic and isothermal studies. Separations, 10(4), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/separations10040260
15. Demirbas, A., & Arin, G. (2002). An overview of biomass pyrolysis. Energy Sources, 24(5), 471-482. https://doi.org/10.1080/00908310252889979
16. Ehyaei, M., & Behbahanizade, A. (1993). Methods of soil chemical analysis. Soil & Water Research Institute, Technical Bulletin. (893). (In Persian)
17. Gee, G.W., & Bauder, J.W. (1986). Particle‐size analysis. Methods of soil analysis: Part 1 Physical and mineralogical methods, 5, 383-411. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.1.2ed.c15
18. Gusiatin, Z.M., Kurkowski, R., Brym, S., & Wiśniewski, D. (2016). Properties of biochars from conventional and alternative feedstocks and their suitability for metal immobilization in industrial soil. Environmental Science & Pollution Research, 23, 21249-21261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7335-4
19. Han, Y., Yin, Y., Zhang, H., Sun, S., Huang, Z., Deng, Y., & Bao, L. (2024). Adsorption effect of phosphate modified grape branch biochar on Cd₂. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 12(4), 59-77. https://doi.org/ 10.4236/gep.2024.124005
20. He, L., Zhong, H., Liu, G., Dai, Z., Brookes, P.C., & Xu, J. (2019). Remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils by biochar: Mechanisms, potential risks and applications in China. Environmental Pollution, 252, 846-855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.151
21. Hejazizadeh, A., Gholamalizadeh Ahangar, A., & Ghorbani, M. (2016). Effect of biochar on lead and cadmium uptake from applied paper factory sewage sludge by sunflower (Heliantus annus). Water & Soil Science, 26(1-2), 259-271. (In Persian with English abstract)
22. Helmke, P.A., & Sparks, D.L. (1996). Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium. Methods of soil analysis: Part 3 chemical methods, 5, 551-574. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.3.c19
23. Ibrahim, M., Khan, S., Hao, X., & Li, G. (2016). Biochar effects on metal bioaccumulation and arsenic speciation in alfalfa (Medicago sativa) grown in contaminated soil. International Journal of Environmental Science & Technology, 13, 2467-2474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-016-1081-5
24. Inyang, M.I., Gao, B., Yao, Y., Xue, Y., Zimmerman, A., Mosa, A., & Cao, X. (2016). A review of biochar as a low-cost adsorbent for aqueous heavy metal removal. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 46(4), 406-433. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643382015.1096880
25. ISO 11466. (1995), Soil quality, Extraction of Trace Elements Soluble in Aqua Regia. International Organization for Standardization. Genf, Schweiz.
26. Janu, R., Mrlik, V., Ribitsch, D., Hofman, J., Sedláček, P., Bielská, L., & Soja, G. (2021). Biochar surface functional groups as affected by biomass feedstock, biochar composition and pyrolysis temperature. Carbon Resources Conversion, 4, 36-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crcon.2021.01.003
27. Jeffery, S., Verheijen, F.G., van der Velde, M., & Bastos, A.C. (2011). A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 144(1), 175-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.08.015
28. Jing, Y.-D., He, Z.-L., & Yang, X.-E. (2007). Role of soil rhizobacteria in phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils. Journal of Zhejiang University Science B, 8(3), 192-207. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus. 2007.B0192
29. Kastori, R., Plesničar, M., Sakač, Z., Panković, D., & Arsenijević‐Maksimović, I. (1998). Effect of excess lead on sunflower growth and photosynthesis. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 21(1), 75-85. https://doi.org/10.1080/019041698 09365384
30. Kloss, S., Zehetner, F., Buecker, J., Oburger, E., Wenzel, W.W., Enders, A., Lehmann, J., & Soja, G. (2015). Trace element biogeochemistry in the soil-water-plant system of a temperate agricultural soil amended with different biochars. Environmental Science & Pollution Research, 22, 4513-4526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3685-y
31. Kołodyńska, D., Krukowska, J., & Thomas, P. (2017). Comparison of sorption and desorption studies of heavy metal ions from biochar and commercial active carbon. Chemical Engineering Journal, 307, 353-363. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.cej.2016.08.088
32. Lehmann, J., Rillig, M.C., Thies, J., Masiello, C.A., Hockaday, W.C., & Crowley, D. (2011). Biochar effects on soil biota–a review. Soil Biology & Biochemistry, 43(9), 1812-1836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2011.04.022
33. Liang, J., Yang, Z., Tang, L., Zeng, G., Yu, M., Li, X., Wu, H., Qian, Y., Li, X., & Luo, Y. (2017). Changes in heavy metal mobility and availability from contaminated wetland soil remediated with combined biochar-compost. Chemosphere, 181, 281-288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.081
34. Liang, M., Lu, L., He, H., Li, J., Zhu, Z., & Zhu, Y. (2021). Applications of biochar and modified biochar in heavy metal contaminated soil: A descriptive review. Sustainability, 13(24), 14041. ‏https://doi.org/10.3390/su132414041 ‏
35. Lindsay, W.L., & Norvell, W. (1978). Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 42(3), 421-428. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1978.03615995004200030009x
36. Lu, K., Yang, X., Shen, J., Robinson, B., Huang, H., Liu, D., Bolan, N., Pei, J., & Wang, H. (2014). Effect of bamboo and rice straw biochars on the bioavailability of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn to Sedum plumbizincicola. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environmental Pollution, 191, 124-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.04.010
37. MalehMir Chegini, M., Golchin, A., Khadem Moghadam Igdelou, N., & Moraveij, K. (2020 a). The effect of Pyrolysis temperature and type of organic residues on physicochemical properties of produced biochar. Iranian Journal of Soil & Water Research, 51(3), 575-593. (In Persian with English abstract). https://org/10.22059/ IJSWR.2019.289906.668332
38. MalehMir Chegini, M., Golchin, A., Khadem Moghadam Igdelou, N., & Moraveij, K. (2020 b). Comparison of the effect of Pyrolysis temperatures and activating materials on properties of modified biochar. Iranian Journal of Soil & Water Research, 51(9), 2405-2415. (In Persian with English abstract). https://doi.org/10.22059/IJSWR. 2020.291647.668376
39. Moreno-Jiménez, E., Fernández, J.M., Puschenreiter, M., Williams, P.N., & Plaza, C. (2016). Availability and transfer to grain of As, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in a barley agri-system: Impact of biochar, organic and mineral fertilizers. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environmental Pollution, 219, 171-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee .2015.12.001
40. Nelson, D.W., & Sommers, L.E. (1996). Total carbon, organic carbon, and organic matter. Methods of soil analysis: Part 3 Chemical methods, (Vol. 5).
41. Olsen, S.R. (1954). Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate (No. 939). US Department of Agriculture.
42. Page, A.L. (1982). Methods of soil analysis. Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties.
43. Park, J. H., Choppala, G.K., Bolan, N.S., Chung, J.W., & Chuasavathi, T. (2011). Biochar reduces the bioavailability and phytotoxicity of heavy metals. Plant and Soil, 348, 439-451. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-011-0948-y
44. Peng, H., Gao, P., Chu, G., Pan, B., Peng, J., & Xing, B. (2017). Enhanced adsorption of Cu (II) and Cd (II) by phosphoric acid-modified biochars. Environmental Pollution, 229, 846-853. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.envpol.2017.07.004
45. Rashid, A., Schutte, B.J., Ulery, A., Deyholos, M.K., Sanogo, S., Lehnhoff, E.A., & Beck, L. (2023). Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soil: environmental pollutants affecting crop health. Agronomy, 13(6), 1521. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13061521
46. Rhoades, J. (1996). Salinity: Electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids. Methods of soil analysis: Part 3 Chemical methods, 5, 417-435. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.3.c14
47. Sajjadi, B., Zubatiuk, T., Leszczynska, D., Leszczynski, J., & Chen, W.Y. (2019). Chemical activation of biochar for energy and environmental applications: a comprehensive review. Reviews in Chemical Engineering, 35(7), 777-815. https://doi.org/10.1515/revce-2018-0003
48. Sastre, J., Sahuquillo, A., Vidal, M., & Rauret, G. (2002). Determination of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in environmental samples: microwave-assisted total digestion versus aqua regia and nitric acid extraction. Analytica Chimica Acta, 462(1), 59-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-2670(02)00307-0
49. Shao, M., Ding, Z.C., Yang, Y.Z., Zhang, Z.P., & Wan, Y.S. (2024). Phosphoric acid-modified biochar enhances electrokinetic in situ leaching technology to remediate Pb2+ contaminated soil. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05568-x
50. Sinha, P., Dube, B., Srivastava, P., & Chatterjee, C. (2006). Alteration in uptake and translocation of essential nutrients in cabbage by excess lead. Chemosphere, 65(4), 651-656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere. 2006.01.068
51. Soudek, P., Valseca, I.R., Petrová, Š., Song, J., & Vaněk, T. (2017). Characteristics of different types of biochar and effects on the toxicity of heavy metals to germinating sorghum seeds. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 182, 157-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2016.12.013
52. Tang, L., Yu, J., Pang, Y., Zeng, G., Deng, Y., Wang, J., & Feng, H. (2018). Sustainable efficient adsorbent: alkali-acid modified magnetic biochar derived from sewage sludge for aqueous organic contaminant removal. Chemical Engineering Journal, 336, 160-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.11.048‏
53. Thomas, G.W. (1996). Soil pH and soil acidity. Methods of soil analysis: Part 3 Chemical methods, 5, 475-490. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.3.c16
54. Timofeev, I., Kosheleva, N., & Kasimov, N. (2018). Contamination of soils by potentially toxic elements in the impact zone of tungsten molybdenum ore mine in the Baikal region: A survey and risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 642, 63-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.042
55. Tomczyk, A., Sokołowska, Z., & Boguta, P. (2020). Biochar physicochemical properties: pyrolysis temperature and feedstock kind effects. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology, 19(1), 191-215.‏ https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-020-09523-3
56. Wang, B., Gao, B., & Fang, J. (2017). Recent advances in engineered biochar productions and applications. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 47(22), 2158-2207.‏ https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2017. 1418580
57. Wang, J., & Wang, S. (2019). Preparation, modification and environmental application of biochar: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 227, 1002-1022. .‏https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.282
58. Xu, P., Sun, C.-X., Ye, X.-Z., Xiao, W.-D., Zhang, Q., & Wang, Q. (2016). The effect of biochar and crop straws on heavy metal bioavailability and plant accumulation in a Cd and Pb polluted soil. Ecotoxicology & Environmental Safety, 132, 94-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.05.031
59. Yaashikaa, P.R., Kumar, PS., Varjani, S., & Saravanan, A.J.B.R. (2020). A critical review on the biochar production techniques, characterization, stability and applications for circular bioeconomy. Biotechnology Reports, 28, e00570.‏ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2020.e00570
60. Yang, X., Zhang, S., Ju, M., & Liu, L. (2019). Preparation and modification of biochar materials and their application in soil remediation. Applied Sciences, 9(7), 1365. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9071365
61. Zeng, X.Y., Wang, Y., Li, R.X., Cao, H.L., Li, Y.F., & Lü, J. (2022). Impacts of temperatures and phosphoric-acid modification to the physicochemical properties of biochar for excellent sulfadiazine adsorption. Biochar, 4(1), 14.‏ https://doi.org/10.1007/s42773-022-00143-4
62. Zhang, G., Guo, X., Zhao, Z., He, Q., Wang, S., Zhu, Y., Yan, Y., Liu, X., Sun, K., & Zhao, Y. (2016). Effects of biochars on the availability of heavy metals to ryegrass in an alkaline contaminated soil. Environmental Pollution. 218, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.07.031
63. Zhang, X., Gu, P., Liu, X., Huang, X., Wang, J., Zhang, S., & Ji, J. (2021). Effect of crop straw biochars on the remediation of Cd-contaminated farmland soil by hyperaccumulator Bidens pilosa Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 219, 112332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112332
64. Zhang, X., Zhao, B., Liu, H., Zhao, Y., & Li, L. (2022). Effects of pyrolysis temperature on biochar’s characteristics and speciation and environmental risks of heavy metals in sewage sludge biochars. Environmental Technology & Innovation, 26, 102288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2022.102288