Water and Soil

Abstract Introduction The agricultural sector’s strong dependence on water and energy resources for ensuring food security for the growing global population amplifies the necessity of enhancing water and energy efficiency in agricultural products, while simultaneously maintaining the health of society and the environment. Sustainable provision of water and energy is one of the main challenges to development in all countries. Since the agricultural sector is one of the largest consumers of water and energy, any disruption in their supply can significantly impact agricultural production levels. Increasing efficiency and optimizing energy consumption management are key strategies for mitigating the environmental effects caused by food production processes. This approach not only creates economic benefits but also plays a crucial role in achieving the long-term sustainability of production systems through the conservation of fossil resources and reduction of air pollution. Consequently, extensive research has been focused on energy management. On the other hand, unsustainable use of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and fossil fuels leads to serious consequences, including global warming, biodiversity loss, and degradation of soil and air quality. Therefore, sustainable management of these inputs is essential and inevitable for maintaining environmental balance and achieving sustainable development. Thus, the challenges of food security and the need for sustainability of energy resources in modern agriculture have heightened the importance of assessing energy consumption efficiency. Energy footprint analysis serves as an effective tool for identifying high-consumption areas and providing managerial and technological solutions to improve energy efficiency in agricultural production.   Materials and Methods This research was conducted with the aim of examining the personal characteristics of farmers, analyzing energy consumption, and assessing energy indicators in the cultivation of three major crops: rice, forage corn, and potatoes, in the districts of Dorud, Kuhdasht, and Azna, respectively, in Lorestan Province. Data were collected through questionnaires and face-to-face interviews with farmers and analyzed using statistical methods. The input energy indicators included chemical fertilizers, fuel, irrigation water, seeds, and human labor. The main sections of the questionnaires included: (I) general information about the farmer and the farm, such as age, education, work experience, and land area; (II) information regarding the amount of input consumption, including human labor, machinery, chemical inputs, fuel, irrigation water, and seeds; and (III) information regarding crop yield. The statistical population consisted of one thousand active farmers involved in rice production (in Dorud), forage corn (in Kuhdasht), and potatoes (in Azna). To determine the sample size, the Cochran formula was used with a confidence level of 95% and a margin of error of 7%. To calculate the energy equivalent of inputs and outputs, all production inputs and outputs were converted to energy equivalents in terms of megajoules per hectare (MJ/ha). In this research, indicators such as Energy Ratio, Net Energy Yield, Energy Efficiency, and Water Use Efficiency were employed.   Results and Discussion The findings indicated that the majority of farmers were in the age range of 40-50 years, with primary or high school education, and had a minimum of five years of farming experience. Their predominant crop was forage corn. The findings indicated that the highest input energy consumption was observed for potatoes, with 123048 MJ ha⁻¹, of which fuel energy accounted for 58.17%. It was followed by rice with 121117.09 MJ ha⁻¹ (fuel energy share: 50%), and forage maize with 98644 MJ ha⁻¹, where 60.85% of the total energy input was derived from fuel consumption. After fossil fuels, agricultural machinery, with an average share of 30%, and chemical fertilizers, with an average of 10%, ranked nex. The energy share of irrigation water in rice was 11236.39 MJ ha⁻¹ (9.28%), which was significantly higher compared to the other two crops.   Conclusion Overall, the results revealed that potato had the highest total input energy (123048 MJ ha⁻¹) and output energy (151200 MJ ha⁻¹), while forage maize had the lowest input energy (98644 MJ ha⁻¹).

Abstract Introduction
The common bean is an important legume cultivated by farmers in various regions using low-input practices. It originated in South and Central America and is now cultivated in all tropical and temperate regions worldwide. Asia accounts for 43% of global bean production, while the Americas (North, Central, and South America) account for 29%, and Africa for 26%. Bean seeds, containing approximately 22% protein, are a valuable alternative to animal protein sources. Iran is an arid and semi-arid country that faces the problem of resource shortages, especially water. Undoubtedly, modifying consumption patterns as well as optimizing the use of agricultural inputs will lead to increased food security.
 
Materials and Methods
The experiments were conducted at the research farm of the Campus of Agricultural and Natural Resources (34°, 19´ N, 47°, 50´ E and altitude 1320 m) of Razi University in the Kermanshah region, located in western Iran, over three years from 2021 to 2023. In terms of climatic divisions, this region is located in the temperate mountainous regions with a Mediterranean climate. The experiments were conducted in a split plot in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatments included irrigation water amount as the main factor (providing 100% of the water requirement, equivalent to 7300 m³ ha^-1 (IR100%), providing 80% of the water requirement, equivalent to 5840 m³ ha^-1 (IR80%), and providing 60% of the water requirement, equivalent to 4380 m³ ha^-1 (IR60%) for 2021. Because the amount of water required by the plant is determined according to climatic factors, the amounts of irrigation water in each treatment were determined as 6800, 5440, and 4080 m³ ha^-1 for 2022 and 7200, 5760, and 4320 m³ ha^-1 for 2023, respectively. Three common red bean cultivars, including Ofogh, Yaghoot, and Derakhshan, were also considered as secondary factors. The soil water status, leaf area index (LAI), light absorption, total dry weight (TDW), light use efficiency (LUE), and grain yield (GY) were measured.
 
Results and Discussion
The soil volumetric water content fluctuated as a function of the amount of water entering the soil (irrigation) and the amount of water leaving the soil (evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration by the plant). Soil volumetric water content varied in different irrigation treatments. Regardless of the red bean cultivars, the highest and lowest soil water content were observed in the IR100% and IR60% treatments during 2021-2023, respectively. The volumetric soil water content also varied for the studied red bean cultivars during the experimental period. Regardless of irrigation treatments, the highest and lowest soil water content were observed for the Ofogh and Derakhshan cultivars, respectively. The Ofogh cultivar had a shorter growth period than the other cultivars, so it required less irrigation water. It seems that the Ofogh cultivar absorbed water from the soil more quickly in the early stages of growth, which led to a sharp decrease in soil moisture content. But at the end of the growing season, as the air gradually cooled, soil moisture content increased again due to a decrease in water absorption by the Ofogh cultivar. The Yaghoot cultivar required more irrigation water than the Ofogh cultivar due to its unlimited growth, and in the middle of its growth period, due to the greater development of leaves in the canopy, it absorbed more water from the soil, which led to a more severe decrease in soil moisture. The changes in soil water content for the Derakhshan cultivar were almost similar to the Yaghoot cultivar. Due to the longer growth period of Derakhshan cultivar compared to other cultivars, more irrigation water was absorbed by this cultivar, which led to a sharp decrease in soil volumetric water content at the end of the growth period. The results showed that soil moisture content varied significantly among irrigation treatments and cultivars. Severe water deficit stress reduced LAI, TDW, and GY. The highest LUE in the vegetative and reproductive stages for the Yaghoot cultivar compared to other cultivars were 1.36 and 0.54 g MJ^-1, respectively. In 2022, the evaluated traits were higher than in 2021 and 2023, due to the lower average temperature (27°C) during the growing season. Regardless of year, the highest grain yield (192.5 g m^-2) belonged to Ofogh cultivar under optimum irrigation conditions, and the lowest grain yield (80.9 g m^-2) belonged to Derakhshan cultivar in severe water stress conditions.
 
Conclusion
The results of this study showed a positive effect of irrigation on the light absorption and LUE of common bean cultivars. Severe water stress reduced the ability of the crop to maintain leaf area during the growth period. Finally, the reduction in light absorption, LUE, and the length of the bean growth period due to drought stress led to lower TDW and GY.
 

Abstract Introduction
Water scarcity, as one of the main challenges in the agricultural sector, especially in arid and semi-arid regions, has doubled the necessity of optimizing water use in the production of strategic crops such as sugar beet. Determining an optimal irrigation pattern that can simultaneously meet performance, technical, and economic objectives requires a comprehensive and multi-dimensional approach. Traditional evaluation methods, which often focus on one or a limited number of indicators, are unable to provide a complete picture of the trade-offs between different criteria. In this regard, Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methods, with their capability to simultaneously and compromisingly evaluate quantitative and qualitative indicators, are considered effective tools for prioritizing management options. This research aimed to evaluate the effects of different levels of management allowable depletion (MAD) on functional, technical, and economic indicators in a sugar beet irrigation system. Given water resource limitations and the need to optimize agricultural water use, determining the appropriate MAD level can significantly enhance crop productivity and profitability. The study employed the VIKOR (VIseKriterijumska Optimizacija I Kompromisno Resenje) multi-criteria decision-making method to select the best irrigation treatment. This investigation was conducted within the context of increasing global water scarcity and the critical need for sustainable agricultural practices. Efficient irrigation management is paramount for ensuring food security and the economic viability of farming operations. By systematically analyzing the trade-offs between water conservation, crop yield, and economic returns under varying soil moisture regimes, this study provides a comprehensive framework for informed decision-making. The application of the VIKOR method is particularly suited to this problem, as it facilitates the identification of a balanced compromise solution that reconciles potentially conflicting objectives inherent in agricultural water management, thereby offering a robust scientific basis for optimizing sugar beet irrigation strategies in water-limited environments.
 
Materials and Methods
Integrated Methodology Section (Final Version): This experiment employed a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to systematically evaluate the impact of irrigation treatments. The study was conducted at the experimental field of the Soil and Water Research Institute in Karaj, Iran. Three distinct levels of management allowable depletion (MAD), specifically 40%, 60%, and 80%, were applied as the main treatments, each replicated four times to ensure statistical reliability and account for field variability. A comprehensive dataset was collected, encompassing key agronomic and economic indicators: crop evapotranspiration (ETc), root yield, water productivity (WP), energy productivity, and relevant economic metrics. For the statistical analysis of the data derived from the randomized complete block design, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was utilized. This analysis was conducted to examine the statistical significance of observed differences among the various irrigation treatments for each measured trait. In cases where the treatment effect was significant, Duncan's multiple range test at the 5% probability level was used to separate the means. To assess the reliability of the results and investigate the sensitivity of the final ranking to potential variations in criterion weights or data fluctuations, a sensitivity analysis based on Monte Carlo simulation was also performed. In this analysis, by introducing controlled random variations to the input parameters of the VIKOR model, the stability and robustness of the final ranking of the options were evaluated. The VIKOR multi-criteria decision-making method was subsequently applied to this integrated dataset. This method was chosen for its proven efficacy in handling complex decisions involving conflicting and non-commensurable criteria, allowing for the identification of a compromise ranking that best satisfies all evaluation parameters under the given experimental conditions. The integration of results from the analysis of variance, mean comparison tests, and Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis with the output of the VIKOR method provided a robust and multidimensional analytical framework for deriving valid and applicable conclusions.
 
Results and Discussion
The results demonstrated that the MAD=60% (T2) treatment optimally balanced root yield, WP, energy productivity, and benefit-cost ratio, emerging as the superior option. In the first year, this treatment achieved a VIKOR index (Q=0.2971), a root yield of 36.35 t/ha, and a WP of 5.07 kg/m³. In the second year, it recorded a VIKOR index (Q=0.1463), a root yield of 45.4 t/ha, and a WP of 5.8 kg/m³, confirming its superiority. To ensure the reliability of the results, a Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis was performed. This analysis confirmed the stability of the MAD=60% treatment, with probabilities of 85.94% (first year) and 100% (second year). These findings indicate that MAD=60% performs consistently under varying conditions.
 
Conclusion
The study concludes that MAD=60% is the optimal irrigation strategy for sugar beet cultivation under normal water resource conditions, excelling in functional, technical, and economic performance. These findings can guide farmers and policymakers in improving water management and crop efficiency.
 
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the staff of the Soil and Water Research Institute, Karaj, Iran, for their assistance in fieldwork and data collection.
 

Abstract Introduction Background and objectives: Drought stress is one of the most significant abiotic stressors, recognized as a major constraint on agricultural plant growth and productivity worldwide. It adversely affects soil physicochemical properties and plant physiological processes, altering soil microbial dynamics. Drought stress reduces crop yields and degrades soil health in arid and semi-arid regions, where water scarcity is a critical challenge. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have emerged as a sustainable and eco-friendly strategy to enhance plant resilience against abiotic stresses, including drought. These beneficial microorganisms improve nutrient uptake, stimulate phytohormone production, and enhance stress tolerance mechanisms in plants, thereby mitigating the negative impacts of water deficit. Considering that most of the regions of Iran are located in arid and semi-arid climates and taking into account the advantages of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria in reducing stress compared to other physical and chemical methods, this research investigated the effect of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria on reducing drought stress in the tomato plant and biological characteristics of the soil.  .   Materials and Methods A greenhouse experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with four replications. Experimental treatments included four levels of drought stress (40, 60, 80, and 100% of FC) and five bacterial strains: B19 (Lysinibacillus sphaericus), B60 (Bacillus sp.), B103 (Lysibacillus sp.), B124 (Achromobacter sp.), and GB03 (Bacillus subtilis). A control treatment (without bacteria and drought stress) was also considered. To apply the treatments, 4 kg pots were prepared using soil passed through a 4 mm sieve. Nutrient Broth (NB) medium was used for cultivation to enhance the bacterial population. The bacteria were grown under controlled conditions at 30°C with continuous shaking at 120 rpm for 36 hours to ensure optimal growth. After incubation, a bacterial suspension with a concentration of 10⁹ CFU/mL was prepared in sterile distilled water. Tomato seedlings' roots were then immersed in this suspension for 20 minutes to ensure proper colonization before being transplanted into the potted soil. A control treatment (non-inoculated seedlings) was also included in the experiment for comparative analysis. To ensure the establishment of the plants, all the pots were irrigated for 3 to 4 weeks. The desired drought stress was applied during the cultivation period by measuring soil moisture using the gravimetric method. In this method, the weight of the pots was measured every day, and irrigation was performed immediately after the soil moisture decreased. This method of applying treatments continued daily for three months. The greenhouse temperature was 25°C and the lighting period was 12 hours. The characteristics of the number of flowers, fresh weight of the aerial part and roots, stomatal resistance, fresh weight of the fruit, and the amount of the free proline content of the leaves were measured. In addition, soil biological characteristics, including organic carbon mineralization, microbial biomass carbon, substrate-induced respiration (SIR), and metabolic quotient (qCO₂) after plant harvesting, were determined in the soil. Before performing the analysis of variance (ANOVA), the normality of the data was tested. In this study, Duncan's 5% probability level test was used for mean comparisons, Excel software was used for graphing, and SAS 9.4 was employed for data analysis.   Results The results of this study showed that all five bacterial strains used caused significant increases in the fresh weight of the shoot, the number of flowers, and the fruit weight. The amount of free proline in the leaves increased significantly compared to the control treatment (no inoculation). The results showed that the value of stomatal resistance had a significant decrease compared to the control treatment (no inoculation). Also, the used strains improved the quality of soil biological characteristics, so that basal respiration, substrate-induced respiration (SIR), and microbial biomass carbon had a significant increase, but the metabolic quotient (qCO₂) showed a significant decrease compared to the control treatment (no inoculation). Among the five strains used, three strains, B19, B60, and B103 showed the greatest effect in reducing the effects of drought stress.   Conclusion Various stressful conditions, including the moisture stress prevailing in Iran's agriculture, cause a decrease in the growth and yield of agricultural products; therefore, the use of inoculants containing microorganisms, including plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, whose activity has been proven to improve stress conditions, is essential.

Abstract Introduction
Cadmium (Cd) contamination of soils is a serious environmental concern due to its persistence, high mobility, and toxicity, posing significant risks to food security and ecosystem stability. The transfer of Cd into the food chain through contaminated crops can lead to severe human health disorders. Phytoremediation has been recognized as an environmentally friendly and cost-effective strategy for the remediation of Cd-contaminated soils. Forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is considered a promising species for phytoremediation because of its extensive root system, rapid growth rate, adaptability to stress conditions, and high biomass production. However, its phytoremediation efficiency may be restricted by limited Cd bioavailability in soil and metal-induced growth inhibition. Biological approaches such as plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), including Pantoea agglomerans and Pseudomonas fluorescens, can improve plant performance under Cd stress through mechanisms such as siderophore production, phytohormone synthesis, phosphate solubilization, and stimulation of antioxidant defense systems. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) enhance root absorption capacity via extensive hyphal networks and may regulate metal distribution and stabilization in the rhizosphere. In addition, chemical chelators such as Na-EDTA can increase Cd solubility and availability for plant uptake, although their application may raise environmental concerns, including potential metal leaching. Although the individual effects of PGPB, AMF, and EDTA on Cd-contaminated soils have been widely reported, information regarding their interactive effects on forage sorghum under Cd stress remains limited. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the individual and combined effects of PGPB, AMF, and Na-EDTA on growth traits and Cd phytoremediation efficiency of forage sorghum grown in Cd-contaminated soil.
 
Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted in the summer 2024 in a greenhouse at Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran, at the geographical coordinates 34°29′19″ N latitude and 47°05′53″ E longitude. Clay loam soil (pH 7.95, EC 0.435 dS m⁻¹, organic carbon 1.326%) was collected from a nearby field, air-dried, sieved (2 mm), and mixed with sand (2:1 ratio). Soil was spiked with 40 mg kg⁻¹ CdSO₄ and equilibrated for one month. A factorial completely randomized design with four replicates was applied across 48 pots (26 cm diameter, 30 cm height). Treatments included: (1) PGPB at three levels (control (no bacteria inoculation), P. agglomerans 6 g kg⁻¹ seed, Ps. fluorescens 7 mL kg⁻¹ seed); (2) AMF at two levels (control (no mycorrhizal inoculation), 30 g kg⁻¹ seed); and (3) Na-EDTA at two levels (control (zero), 3 mg kg⁻¹ soil). Seeds were inoculated with sugar-water solution (2%) for solid inoculants, followed by Ps. fluorescens, dried, and sown (10 seeds/pot, thinned to 5 plants). Na-EDTA was applied post-emergence. Irrigation was maintained at field capacity, and plants were harvested 93 days after sowing at the onset of the reproductive stage. Measured traits included aerial and root biomass (oven-dried at 80°C for 48 h), plant height, leaf area (ImageJ), Cd concentrations in plant tissues and soil (acid digestion and atomic absorption spectrometry), translocation factor (TF = shoot Cd/soil Cd), root bioconcentration factor (BCF = root Cd/soil Cd), and tolerance index (TI = treated aerial biomass/control aerial biomass). Data were analyzed using SAS 9.4 with ANOVA and Duncan’s test (P ≤ 0.05).
 
Results and Discussion
Shoot and root biomass as well as tolerance index were not significantly affected by treatments, indicating that Cd stress likely overshadowed the growth-promoting effects of biological amendments and that sorghum’s intrinsic tolerance mechanisms played a dominant role. Na-EDTA significantly increased plant height by 12% compared with the control, suggesting that chelation reduced Cd toxicity and improved growth conditions. The interaction between bacteria and Na-EDTA significantly influenced leaf area. Single inoculation with Pantoea agglomerans or Pseudomonas fluorescens (without EDTA) increased leaf area by approximately 25.5% compared with the control, likely due to enhanced phytohormone production and nutrient availability. However, the addition of EDTA reduced this positive bacterial effect, possibly because of nutrient imbalance or microbial competition. The most pronounced phytoremediation response was observed under the combined application of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Na-EDTA. This treatment increased Cd concentration in shoots by 91% and in roots by 73.8% relative to the control. Simultaneously, soil bioavailable Cd decreased by 44.7%, confirming substantial Cd extraction from the soil. The translocation factor increased more than three-fold, and root bioconcentration factor increased by 216.7%, demonstrating enhanced Cd uptake and internal transfer capacity. AMF showed limited influence on BCF but reduced Cd translocation to shoots, suggesting a stabilizing role in the rhizosphere and partial immobilization of Cd, consistent with its protective function under heavy metal stress.
 
Conclusion
The combined application of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Na-EDTA markedly enhanced Cd phytoremediation efficiency in forage sorghum by increasing Cd uptake, root accumulation, translocation to shoots, and depletion of bioavailable soil Cd. While biomass production was not significantly altered, improvements in plant height, leaf area, TF, and BCF indicate enhanced functional performance under Cd stress. Single bacterial inoculation primarily improved leaf development and physiological potential, whereas AMF moderated Cd transfer to aerial parts through rhizospheric stabilization. Overall, integrating biological inoculants with controlled chelator application represents a promising strategy for optimizing phytoremediation of Cd-contaminated soils. Future research should evaluate long-term field performance, different contamination levels, and environmental safety aspects associated with chelator use.
 
Acknowledgement
Gratitude is extended to Lorestan, Razi, and Kharazmi Universities for providing the necessary facilities and cooperation to carry out this research.
 

Abstract Introduction  The Hyrcanian region, one of the richest forest ecosystems in Iran, is characterized by dense and diverse vegetation that plays a fundamental role in environmental sustainability, regulation of biogeochemical cycles, and support of biodiversity. However, in recent years, increasing human pressures and unsustainable land-use practices have led to the degradation of parts of the Caspian forest ecosystems and a substantial reduction in vegetation cover in some areas. In this context, fine roots, due to their crucial role in nutrient cycling and high sensitivity to land-use changes, together with coarse roots because of their structural functions, and soil enzymes as sensitive indicators of land management, are considered effective tools for assessing the impacts of land-use change on ecosystem functioning. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of vegetation degradation and restoration on root characteristics and soil enzyme activities in the Caspian region.   Materials and Methods  The study area is located in Kelarabad district, western Mazandaran Province, Iran. Seven different land-use types were selected in the study area, including  (1) natural forest, (2) degraded forest, (3) afforestation with Alnus subcordata C. A. Mey., (4) afforestation with Acer insigne Boiss, (5) mixed afforestation with Alnus subcordata C. A. Mey.– Acer insigne Boiss., (6) afforestation with the non-native coniferous species Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl., and (7) prairie. For each vegetation type, three one-hectare sample plots (100 × 100 m) were established. Within each plot, soil samples were collected from the four corners at three depths (0–10, 10–20, and 20–30 cm) using a 30 × 30 cm sampling frame. Consequently, a total of 36 soil samples were collected from each habitat. Simultaneously, root samples were collected from the 0–30 cm depth within the same sampling units, resulting in 12 root samples per habitat, which were then transported to the laboratory. After transfer to the laboratory, root traits and soil properties were determined using standard analytical methods. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (version 22). In addition, principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted using PC-ORD software to examine the relationships among vegetation cover, root characteristics, and soil enzyme activities across different soil depths.   Results and Discussion The results of the assessment of root and soil ecochemical characteristics across the studied habitats indicated that the highest fine-root biomass and coarse root biomass occurred in the natural forest habitat. Specifically, coarse root biomass (482.38 kg ha⁻¹) and the concentrations of carbon (40.72%), nitrogen (0.51%), phosphorus (2.64%), potassium (1.56%), calcium (0.77%), and magnesium (0.42%) in fine roots were higher in the natural forest than in the other habitats. In contrast, the highest carbon-to-nitrogen ratios of both coarse roots (91.92) and fine roots (89.27) were observed in the degraded forest habitat. Regarding soil enzyme activities, the highest activities of acid phosphatase (420.58 µg PNP g⁻¹ h⁻¹), arylsulfatase (310.58 µg PNP g⁻¹ h⁻¹), and invertase (198.08 µg glucose g⁻¹ 3 h⁻¹) were recorded in the natural forest habitat at the 0–10 cm soil depth. The highest urease activity (33.84 µg NH₄⁺–N g⁻¹ 2 h⁻¹) was observed in the Alnus subcordata-restored habitat. Across all studied habitats, enzyme activities decreased with increasing soil depth, reaching their lowest values in the deeper soil layers.   Conclusion The available evidence suggests that land degradation and land-use change, through reductions in vegetation quantity and diversity, can alter soil biological processes and lead to changes in root characteristics and soil enzyme activities. Because these biological indicators play a crucial role in regulating nutrient cycling and maintaining soil quality, understanding their responses to forest degradation and restoration is particularly important, especially in temperate ecosystems. The results of this study demonstrated that natural forest and restored forest habitats, characterized by higher soil enzyme activities, greater root biomass, and more favorable soil ecochemical conditions, exhibited superior biological performance compared with degraded and prairie habitats. Overall, the findings indicate that soil biological indicators—particularly root traits and soil enzyme activities—are sensitive and effective tools for evaluating the success of vegetation restoration and detecting the impacts of degradation in forest ecosystems of the Hyrcanian region. Therefore, the application of these indicators can provide a robust scientific basis for soil quality monitoring and the development of sustainable restoration and management programs in this region.   Acknowledgements This work is based upon research funded by Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) under postdoctoral research project No.4038546.