اثر سیستم‌های خاک‌ورزی بر ویژگی‌های فیزیکی، شیمیایی و زیستی خاک در کشت گندم دوروم

نوع مقاله : مقالات پژوهشی

نویسندگان

علی بهشتی آل آقا ¹

حمیدرضا چقازردی ²

¹ گروه علوم و مهندسی خاک، دانشکده کشاورزی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران

² گروه مهندسی تولید و ژنتیک گیاهی، دانشکده علوم و مهندسی کشاورزی، دانشگاه رازی، کرمانشاه، ایران

https://doi.org/10.22067/jsw.2026.98698.1540

چکیده

این پژوهش با هدف بررسی اثر سامانه‌های مختلف خاک‌ورزی، کاربرد زیرشکن و نوع محصول بر برخی ویژگی‌های فیزیکی، شیمیایی و زیستی خاک در سال زراعی 1403-1402 در مزرعه تحقیقاتی دانشگاه رازی کرمانشاه، واقع در اقلیم نیمه‌خشک سرد، انجام شد. خاک مزرعه دارای بافت لومی رسی و ماهیت آهکی بود. آزمایش به‌صورت کرت‌های دوبار خردشده در قالب طرح بلوک‌های کامل تصادفی با سه تکرار اجرا شد. عامل اصلی شامل سامانه‌های خاک‌ورزی در سه سطح بی‌خاک‌ورزی، کم‌خاک‌ورزی و خاک‌ورزی مرسوم، عامل فرعی شامل کاربرد و عدم کاربرد زیرشکن و عامل فرعی‌فرعی شامل دو سطح گندم دوروم و بدون کشت بود. نتایج نشان داد pH خاک تحت تأثیر تیمارها معنی‌دار نشد، اما هدایت الکتریکی خاک تحت تأثیر سامانه خاک‌ورزی، زیرشکن و نوع محصول معنی‌دار بود؛ به‌طوری‌که هدایت الکتریکی در خاک‌ورزی مرسوم 39/0 و در بی‌خاک‌ورزی 30/0 دسی‌زیمنس بر متر بود و در تیمار دارای زیرشکن نسبت به بدون زیرشکن از 34/0 به 36/0 دسی‌زیمنس بر متر افزایش یافت. بیشترین رس قابل انتشار در آب در خاک‌ورزی مرسوم (60/0 درصد) و کمترین آن در بی‌خاک‌ورزی (48/0 درصد) مشاهده شد. پایداری خاکدانه‌ها با شاخص میانگین قطر وزنی خاکدانه‌ها (MWD) ارزیابی شد و این شاخص در بی‌خاک‌ورزی (46/0 میلی‌متر) نسبت به خاک‌ورزی مرسوم (31/0 میلی‌متر) افزایش نشان داد. همچنین، بی‌خاک‌ورزی در مقایسه با خاک‌ورزی مرسوم موجب افزایش کربن آلی خاک از 61/0 به 23/1 درصد، ماده آلی از 05/1 به 10/2 درصد، نیتروژن کل از 10/0 به 21/0 درصد، فسفر قابل جذب از 56/10 به 36/18 میلی‌گرم بر کیلوگرم، پتاسیم قابل جذب از 58/483 به 757 میلی‌گرم بر کیلوگرم و کربن زیست‌توده میکروبی از 36/117 به 30/290 میلی‌گرم کربن بر کیلوگرم خاک شد. در مقابل، تنفس پایه و تنفس ناشی از سوبسترا در خاک‌ورزی مرسوم به‌ترتیب با 11/204 و 08/543 میلی‌گرم دی‌اکسیدکربن بر کیلوگرم خاک در روز بیشترین مقدار را داشتند. در مجموع، نتایج این پژوهش نشان داد که کاهش شدت خاک‌ورزی، به‌ویژه در قالب بی‌خاک‌ورزی همراه با کشت گندم دوروم، می‌تواند با بهبود پایداری خاکدانه‌ها، افزایش ماده آلی و عناصر غذایی و ارتقای شاخص‌های زیستی خاک، نقش مؤثری در بهبود کیفیت و پایداری خاک در شرایط خاک‌های آهکی نیمه‌خشک داشته باشد.

کلیدواژه‌ها

تراکم خاک

زیرشکنی

غلات

مدیریت بقایا

موضوعات

• علوم خاک

---

عنوان مقاله English

Effects of Tillage Systems on Soil Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties under Durum Wheat Cultivation

نویسندگان English

A. Beheshti Ale Agha ¹

H.R. Chaghazardi ²

¹ Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran

² Department of Plant Production and Genetics, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Engineering, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran

چکیده English

Introduction
Tillage management is one of the main factors affecting soil quality and the sustainability of agricultural systems. Intensive conventional tillage can weaken soil structure, accelerate organic matter decomposition, and alter microbial activity due to continuous mechanical disturbance of the soil. In contrast, conservation tillage systems such as reduced tillage and no‑tillage minimize soil disturbance and often retain crop residues on the soil surface, which can improve soil aggregation, enhance soil organic carbon storage, and increase nutrient retention. These systems also help reduce soil erosion, improve water infiltration, and create more favorable conditions for soil microorganisms. In semi‑arid regions, where soil moisture is limited and soil degradation can occur rapidly, maintaining soil structure and fertility is particularly important for crop production. Durum wheat is an important cereal crop in many semi‑arid areas, and its productivity is closely related to soil health and nutrient availability. Therefore, understanding how different tillage systems influence soil properties is essential for developing sustainable management strategies. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different tillage systems and crop presence on selected physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil.

Materials and Methods
The experiment was conducted as a split-split-plot arrangement within a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. The treatments consisted of three tillage systems, including conventional tillage (CT), reduced tillage (RT), and no-tillage (NT), assigned to the main plots. The subsoiling treatments, including subsoiling and no-subsoiling, were allocated to the subplots, and two crop treatments, including control (uncultivated soil) and durum wheat (Triticum durum), were assigned to the sub-subplots. Soil samples were collected after the crop growing period from the experimental plots and prepared for laboratory analysis. A set of soil quality indicators representing physical, chemical, and biological aspects of soil functioning was measured. Physical and chemical assessments included pH, electrical conductivity (EC), water‑dispersible clay (WDC), and mean weight diameter (MWD) of aggregates, which were used to evaluate salinity condition and aggregate stability. Chemical analyses included soil organic matter (SOM), soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), available phosphorus (P), and available potassium (K) as the main indicators of soil fertility and nutrient status. Biological properties were determined through basal soil respiration (BR) and substrate‑induced respiration (SIR), in order to estimate microbial activity and the potential metabolic response of soil microorganisms to an added substrate. In addition, microbial biomass carbon was considered in the interpretation of biological responses where relevant. The collected data were statistically analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test the significance of the main effects of tillage and crop treatment as well as their interaction effects on soil properties. Mean comparisons were performed using appropriate post hoc tests at the selected probability level.

Results and Discussion
The results showed that tillage management significantly influenced the measured soil properties. Conventional tillage generally resulted in higher EC and water‑dispersible clay, indicating weaker structural stability, whereas no‑tillage improved aggregation and produced the highest mean weight diameter of soil aggregates. These results confirm that reduced soil disturbance promotes aggregate formation and protects soil structure. Soil organic matter and soil organic carbon increased as tillage intensity decreased, with the highest values observed under no‑tillage. This trend indicates that conservation systems reduce oxidation of organic materials and favor carbon accumulation within stable aggregates. Nutrient availability also improved under conservation practices, particularly in the no‑tillage treatment, where nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium values were generally higher than in conventional tillage. Crop treatment had a positive effect on several soil properties. Soils under durum wheat showed higher soil organic matter, soil organic carbon, and nutrient concentrations than uncultivated control soils, probably because of root residues, rhizosphere activity, and enhanced microbial interactions. Biological indicators also responded significantly to management practices. Basal respiration was greater under conventional tillage, suggesting more rapid decomposition of soil organic matter under intensive disturbance. In contrast, lower respiration values under no‑tillage reflected greater stabilization of organic carbon. Substrate‑induced respiration was significantly affected by tillage, crop treatment, and their interaction, indicating that microbial activity was highly sensitive to both soil disturbance and plant presence.

Conclusion
The findings demonstrate that tillage management has an important role in controlling soil quality in durum wheat systems. Conservation practices, especially no‑tillage, improved soil structure, increased soil organic carbon and organic matter, and enhanced nutrient availability compared with conventional tillage. Durum wheat cultivation also contributed positively to soil improvement through rhizosphere effects and organic inputs. Overall, the combination of no‑tillage and durum wheat cultivation appears to be a suitable management strategy for improving soil quality and supporting sustainable production in semi‑arid conditions.

کلیدواژه‌ها English

Cereals

Residue management

Reduced tillage

Soil compaction

Subsoiling

Authors retain the copyright. This is an open access article distributed under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)

 

مراجع

1.        Afzal, M.Y., Das, B.K., Valappil, V.T., Scaria, J., & Brözel, V.S. (2024). Root exudate compounds change the bacterial community in bulk soil. Rhizosphere, 30, 100885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2024.100885

2.        Alef, K., & Nannipieri, P. (1995). Methods in applied soil microbiology and biochemistry. Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012513840-6/50014-8

3.        Algarin, C.A.V., Thiengo, C.C., Cherubin, M.R., Bieluczyk, W., Mariano, E., Amorim, D.J., Franco, M.F.S., González, A.C., & Lavres, J. (2025). Can no-tillage and crop diversification sustain nutrient stocks in acidic and poorly-fertilized soils? Evidence from 32 years of real-world agricultural management in Paraguay. Soil Advances, 4, 100084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilad.2025.100084

4.        Almagro, M., Ruiz-Navarro, A., Díaz-Pereira, E., Albaladejo, J., & Martínez-Mena, M. (2021). Plant residue chemical quality modulates the soil microbial response related to decomposition and soil organic carbon and nitrogen stabilization in a rainfed Mediterranean agroecosystem. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 156, 108198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2021.108198

5.        Amelung, W., Tang, N., Siebers, N., Aehnelt, M., Eusterhues, K., Felde, V.J.M.N.L., Guggenberger, G., Kaiser, K., Kögel-Knabner, I., Klumpp, E., Knief, C., Kruse, J., Lehndorff, E., Mikutta, R., Peth, S., Ray, N., Prechtel, A., Ritschel, T., Schweizer, S.A.,…Totsche, K.U. (2024). Architecture of soil microaggregates: Advanced methodologies to explore properties and functions. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 187(1), 17–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.202300149

6.        Anderson, J.P. (1982). Soil respiration. In Methods of soil analysis: part 2 chemical and microbiological properties (Vol. 9, pp. 831–871).

7.        Andrews, E.M., Kassama, S., Smith, E.E., Brown, P.H., & Khalsa, S.D.S. (2021). A review of potassium-rich crop residues used as organic matter amendments in tree crop agroecosystems. Agriculture, 11(7), 580. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11070580

8.        Angon, P.B., Anjum, N., Akter, M.M., Kc, S., Suma, R.P., & Jannat, S. (2023). An overview of the impact of tillage and cropping systems on soil health in agricultural practices. Advances in Agriculture, 2023(1), 8861216. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/8861216

9.        Asodar, M.A., & Ghasemi-nejad Raini, M. (2008). Agricultural machines. Shahid Chamran University Press, Ahvaz.

10.     Awoniyi, A.S., Adeyemo, A.J., Agbenin, J.O., Ilori, A.O., da Silva Oliveira, D.M., & de Freitas, D.A.F. (2025). Potassium release from K-bearing minerals treated with organic acids under laboratory conditions. Discover Soil, 2(1), 69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44378-025-00096-7

11.     Baranian Kabir, E., Bashari, H., Mosaddeghi, M.R., & Bassiri, M. (2017). Soil aggregate stability and organic matter as affected by land-use change in central Iran. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 63(13), 1823–1837. https:/doi.org/10.1080/03650340.2017.1308492

12.     Bardgett, R.D., & Van Der Putten, W.H. (2014). Belowground biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Nature, 515(7528), 505–511. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13855

13.     Becker, R.K., Barbosa, E.A.A., Giarola, N.F.B., Kochinski, E.G., Povh, F.P., Paula, A.L.d., & Cherubin, M.R. (2022). Mechanical intervention in compacted no-till soil in southern Brazil: Soil physical quality and maize yield. Agronomy, 12(10), 2281. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12102281

14.     Birge, H.E., Conant, R.T., Follett, R.F., Haddix, M.L., Morris, S.J., Snapp, S.S., Wallenstein, M.D., & Paul, E.A. (2015). Soil respiration is not limited by reductions in microbial biomass during long-term soil incubations. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 81, 304–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2014.11.028

15.     Blanco-Canqui, H., & Lal, R. (2008). Principles of soil conservation and management. Springer Science & Business Media.

16.     Blanco-Canqui, H., & Ruis, S.J. (2018). No-tillage and soil physical environment. Geoderma, 326, 164–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.03.011

17.     Busari, M.A., Kukal, S.S., Kaur, A., Bhatt, R., & Dulazi, A A. (2015). Conservation tillage impacts on soil, crop and the environment. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, 3(2), 119–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswcr.2015.05.002

18.     Carter, M.R., & Gregorich, E.G. (2007). Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis.

19.     Cui, H., Mo, C., Chen, P., Lan, R., He, C., Lin, J., Jiang, Z., & Yang, J. (2023). Impact of rhizosphere priming on soil organic carbon dynamics: Insights from the perspective of carbon fractions. Applied Soil Ecology, 189, 104982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2023.104982

20.     Dakora, F.D., & Phillips, D.A. (2002). Root exudates as mediators of mineral acquisition in low-nutrient environments. Plant and Soil, 245(1), 35–47. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020809400075

21.     Dassou, A.G., Yemadje, P.L., Atchadé, M.N., Gohouédé, L.C., Aboua, C.D., Boulakia, S., Balarabe, O., Sekloka, E., & Tittonell, P. (2024). Conservation agriculture compared to conventional tillage improves the trade-off between ground-dwelling arthropod trophic groups for natural pest regulation in cotton cropping systems. Global Ecology and Conservation, 55, e03223. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03223

22.     Ding, W., Sun, L., Qi, Z., Li, S., Filipović, V., Wu, X., & He, H. (2025). Conservation tillage enhances both organic and inorganic carbon in dryland: Insights from a 20-year field experiment and meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 393, 109845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2025.109845

23.     Franco-Luesma, S., Cavero, J., Plaza-Bonilla, D., Cantero-Martínez, C., Arrúe, J.L., & Álvaro-Fuentes, J. (2020). Tillage and irrigation system effects on soil carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) emissions in a maize monoculture under Mediterranean conditions. Soil and Tillage Research, 196, 104488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.104488

24.     Franzluebbers, A. (2002). Soil organic matter stratification ratio as an indicator of soil quality. Soil and Tillage Research, 66(2), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00018-1

25.     Gosai, K., Arunachalam, A., & Dutta, B.K. (2010). Tillage effects on soil microbial biomass in a rainfed agricultural system of northeast India. Soil and Tillage Research, 109(2), 68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2010.04.006

26.     Hayat, S., Faraz, A., & Faizan, M. (2017). Root exudates: composition and impact on plant–microbe interaction. Biofilms in Plant and Soil Health, 179–193. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119246329.ch10

27.     He, S., Fu, L., Shi, Y., Shi, W., Zhang, S., Gao, Z., & Li, X. (2026). Root exudate-mediated nutrient exchange in the rhizosphere: multi-element networks, dynamic regulation, and implications for sustainable agriculture. Journal of Advanced Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2026.02.039

28.     He, Y., Yang, M., Huang, R., Wang, Y., & Ali, W. (2021). Soil organic matter and clay zeta potential influence aggregation of a clayey red soil (Ultisol) under long-term fertilization. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 20498. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-99769-w

29.     Heydari, N., & Taran, F. (2025). Effect of climate change on wheat yield and water productivity in Iran and the world. Iranica Journal of Energy and Environment, 16(2), 253–269. https://doi.org/10.5829/ijee.2025.16.02.08

30.     Hinsinger, P., Bengough, A.G., Vetterlein, D., & Young, I.M. (2009). Rhizosphere: biophysics, biogeochemistry and ecological relevance. Plant and Soil, 321, 117–152. https:/doi.org/10.1007/s11104-008-9885-9

31.     Horwath, W., & Paul, E. (1994). Microbial biomass. In Methods of soil analysis: part 2 microbiological and biochemical properties (Vol. 5, pp. 753–773).

32.     Karami, A., Homaee, M., Afzalinia, S., Ruhipour, H., & Basirat, S. (2012). Organic resource management: Impacts on soil aggregate stability and other soil physico-chemical properties. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 148, 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.10.021

33.     Kataria, P., Singh, J., Singh, G., Mavi, M., Sillanpää, M., & Al-Farraj, S. (2024). Residual phosphorus availability after soil application of different organic waste in varying soil P status soils. Heliyon, 10(7), e25732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25732

34.     Kool, D., Tong, B., Tian, Z., Heitman, J., Sauer, T., & Horton, R. (2019). Soil water retention and hydraulic conductivity dynamics following tillage. Soil and Tillage Research, 193, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2019.05.020

35.     Kuzyakov, Y., & Domanski, G. (2000). Carbon input by plants into the soil. Review. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 163(4), 421–431. https://doi.org/10.1002/1522-2624(200008)163:4%3C421::AID-JPLN421%3E3.0.CO;2-R

36.     Kuzyakov, Y., & Xu, X. (2013). Competition between roots and microorganisms for nitrogen: mechanisms and ecological relevance. New Phytologist, 198(3), 656–669. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.12235

37.     Li, J., Yuan, X., Ge, L., Li, Q., Li, Z., Wang, L., & Liu, Y. (2020). Rhizosphere effects promote soil aggregate stability and associated organic carbon sequestration in rocky areas of desertification. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 304, 107126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2020.107126

38.     Li, M., Qing, W., & Songtao, S. (2020). Response of soil aggregate stability and distribution of organic carbon to alpine grassland degradation in Northwest Sichuan. Geoderma Regional, 22, e00309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2020.e00309

39.     Liang, X., Yu, S., Ju, Y., Wang, Y., & Yin, D. (2025). Integrated management practices foster soil health, productivity, and agroecosystem resilience. Agronomy, 15(8), 1816. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15081816

40.     Liu, Y., He, Y., & Peng, B. (2024). Relationship between salt accumulation and soil structure fractals in cotton fields in an arid inland basin. Agronomy, 14(11), 2673. https:/doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14112673

41.     Hamza M.A., & Anderson W.K.. (2005). Soil compaction in cropping systems: A review of the nature, causes and possible solutions. Soil and Tillage Research, 82(2), 121–145. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.08.009

42.     Modiba, M.M., Ocansey, C.M., Ibrahim, H.T.M., Birkás, M., Dekemati, I., & Simon, B. (2025). Assessing 16 years of tillage dynamics on soil physical properties, crop root growth and yield in an endocalcic chernozem soil in Hungary. Agronomy, 15(4), 801. https:/doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040801

43.     Mtyobile, M., Muzangwa, L., & Mnkeni, P.N.S. (2020). Tillage and crop rotation effects on soil carbon and selected soil physical properties in a Haplic Cambisol in Eastern Cape, South Africa. Soil and Water Research, 15(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.17221/176/2018-SWR

44.     Palm, C., Blanco-Canqui, H., DeClerck, F., Gatere, L., & Grace, P. (2014). Conservation agriculture and ecosystem services: An overview. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 187, 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2013.10.010

45.     Paltineanu, C., Dumitru, S., Vizitiu, O., Mocanu, V., Lăcătusu, A.-R., Ion, S., & Domnariu, H. (2024). Soil organic carbon and total nitrogen stocks related to land use and basic environmental properties − assessment of soil carbon sequestration potential in different ecosystems. CATENA, 246, 108435. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2024.108435

46.     Pecci Canisares, L., Grove, J., Miguez, F., & Poffenbarger, H. (2021). Long-term no-till increases soil nitrogen mineralization but does not affect optimal corn nitrogen fertilization practices relative to inversion tillage. Soil and Tillage Research, 213, 105080. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2021.105080

47.     PeeyushSharma, V., Sharma, K., Sharma, N., Phogat, V., & Vikas, V. (2016). Impact of conservation tillage on soil organic carbon and physical properties–a review. International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management, 7(1), 151–161. https://doi.org/10.5958/0976-4038.2016.00024.5

48.     Peralta, G., Alvarez, C.R., & Taboada, M.Á. (2021). Soil compaction alleviation by deep non-inversion tillage and crop yield responses in no tilled soils of the Pampas region of Argentina. A meta-analysis. Soil and Tillage Research, 211, 105022. https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2021.105022

49.     Raper, R. (2005). Agricultural traffic impacts on soil. Journal of Terramechanics, 42(3-4), 259–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jterra.2004.10.010

50.     Sekaran, U., Sagar, K.L., & Kumar, S. (2021). Soil aggregates, aggregate-associated carbon and nitrogen, and water retention as influenced by short and long-term no-till systems. Soil and Tillage Research, 208, 104885. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104885

51.     Shokati, B. (2014). Effect of conservation tillage on soil fertility factors: A review. International Journal of Biosciences, 4(11), 144–156. https://doi.org/10.12692/ijb/4.11.144-156

52.     Singh, N., Singh, S., Dutta, P., Sulochna, H., Yadav, R., Ghosh, S., Panotra, N., & Thakre, T. (2025). Role of conservation tillage strategies in reducing soil degradation and enhancing water infiltration. Asian Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 11(2), 374–387.

53.     Singh, P., Mukherjee, S., Saha, N., Biswas, S., & Mandal, B. (2021). Conservation agriculture in reshaping belowground microbial diversity. In A. Rakshit, S. K. Singh, P. C. Abhilash, & A. Biswas (Eds.), Soil Science: Fundamentals to Recent Advances (pp. 141–173). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0917-6_8

54.     Six, J., Bossuyt, H., Degryze, S., & Denef, K. (2004). A history of research on the link between (micro) aggregates, soil biota, and soil organic matter dynamics. Soil and Tillage Research, 79(1), 7–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2004.03.008

55.     Souid, A., Hamdi, W., Attallah, A., Louhichi, B., L’taief, B., Jellali, S., Lobna, H.-H., Alshaharni, M.O., Algopishi, U.B., & Farissi, M. (2026). Synergistic effects of durum wheat–chickpea intercropping on phosphorus mobilization, rhizosphere enzymatic activity, and agroecosystem productivity in semi-arid Mediterranean soils. Plant and soil, 521(1), 563–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-026-08411-z

56.     Thotakuri, G., Angidi, S., & Athelly, A. (2024). Soil carbon pool as influenced by soil microbial activity—an overview. American Journal of Climate Change, 13(02), 175–193. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajcc.2024.132010

57.     Tou, C., Liu, X., Gan, J., Wanek, W., Jones, D.L., Wu, L., & Ma, Q. (2025). Plant residue quality regulates its incorporation into soil aggregates and organic carbon stabilisation. Geoderma, 460, 117407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2025.117407

58.     Traoré, O., Groleau‐Renaud, V., Plantureux, S., Tubeileh, A., & Boeuf‐Tremblay, V. (2000). Effect of root mucilage and modelled root exudates on soil structure. European Journal of Soil Science, 51(4), 575–581.

59.     Wacker, T.S., Jensen, L.S., & Thorup-Kristensen, K. (2022). Conservation agriculture affects soil organic matter distribution, microbial metabolic capacity and nitrogen turnover under Danish field conditions. Soil and Tillage Research, 224, 105508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2022.105508

60.     Wasikoyo, E., Zsembeli, J., Gashi, N., Gumisiriya, C., & Csaba, J. (2026). Plant–soil microbe interactions’ effects on CO₂ emissions, soil organic carbon and nutrients under different tillage systems. Agriculture, 16(4), 429. https:/doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16040429

61.     Yu, Q., Wang, H., Wen, P., Wang, S., Li, J., Wang, R., & Wang, X. (2020). A suitable rotational conservation tillage system ameliorates soil physical properties and wheat yield: An 11-year in-situ study in a semi-arid agroecosystem. Soil and Tillage Research, 199, 104600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104600